Explainer: Aflatoxins – What You Need to Know

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Aflatoxin is a dangerous toxin produced by fungi that grow on crops and can cause cancer, liver damage, and growth problems in humans and animals. It is a significant food safety issue in many parts of the world, especially in developing countries.

Writer: Beatrice Amude Paulino

A media report by South Sudan’s Juba-based Eye Radio says the South Sudan Bureau of Standards has impounded forty containers of maize flour from Uganda at the Nimule border on claims that they are affected by Aflatoxin fungi according to preliminary laboratory tests.

“At least 40 containers of substandard maize flour were confiscated at the Nimule border,” said the South Sudan Bureau of Standards Chief Executive Officer, Mary Gordon.

‘’We found some substances in the food items, especially the maize flour from Uganda. It has not expired, but the chemical ( aflatoxin) acquired harms human consumption. Forty containers have been stopped from proceeding to Juba,’’ said the clearance Agents Association Chairperson, Daniel Deng

Courtesy image

211 Check takes a look at how this type of fungi affects food, and here is what we found out:

What is Aflatoxin?

Aflatoxins are a family of toxins produced by certain fungi found on crops such as maize (corn), peanuts, cottonseed, and tree nuts. The primary fungi that produce aflatoxins are Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which are abundant in warm and humid regions of the world. Aflatoxin-producing fungi can contaminate crops in the field, at harvest, and during storage.

People can be exposed to aflatoxins by eating contaminated plant products (such as peanuts) or meat or dairy products from animals that ate contaminated feed. Farmers and other agricultural workers may be exposed by inhaling dust generated while handling and processing contaminated crops and feeds.

Image showing corn infected by aflatoxin

What are the common causes of aflatoxin?

Aflatoxin is caused by certain strains of fungi, such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. These fungi are commonly found in soil and can grow on crops such as peanuts, cottonseed, corn, and tree nuts, especially when stored in warm and humid conditions. The fungi produce aflatoxin as part of their natural metabolic processes, which can contaminate food and feed products. Factors that can increase the risk of aflatoxin contamination include poor storage conditions, improper handling and processing of crops, and insect damage to crops. Climate conditions such as drought or excessive rainfall can also contribute to higher levels of crop aflatoxin production.

What are the dangers of exposing people to aflatoxin?

Aflatoxin is a Potent Carcinogen that can cause liver damage, immune system suppression, and growth impairment in humans and animals. The health effects of aflatoxin exposure depend on the level and duration of exposure, as well as individual susceptibility. In acute high-level exposure cases, symptoms may include liver damage, vomiting, abdominal pain, and convulsions. Chronic exposure to low levels of aflatoxin over a prolonged period may increase the risk of developing liver cancer, particularly in populations with existing liver diseases, such as hepatitis B or C infections. Aflatoxin exposure has also been linked to other types of cancer, including lung and colorectal cancer. Children and infants are particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of aflatoxin, which can result in stunted growth, malnutrition, and impaired immune function.

Ways of preventing aflatoxin from contaminating food

Aflatoxin is a type of toxin produced by certain moulds, especially Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. It can contaminate many crops, including grains, nuts, and seeds, and is a significant food safety concern worldwide.

There are several ways to prevent aflatoxin contamination in food:

  1. Proper storage: Aflatoxin-producing moulds thrive in warm, humid conditions. Therefore, storing food in excellent, dry places can help prevent the growth of these moulds.
  2. Good agricultural practices: Farmers can reduce the risk of aflatoxin contamination by using good agricultural practices such as crop rotation, proper irrigation, and timely harvesting and storage of crops.
  3. Biological control: Several strains of non-toxic Aspergillus fungi can be used to compete with and displace the toxic strains that produce aflatoxin.
  4. Chemical control: Fungicides can be applied to crops to control the growth of aflatoxin-producing moulds.
  5. Screening and testing: Regular screening and testing of food products for the presence of aflatoxin can help identify contaminated batches before they enter the food supply chain.

It’s important to note that prevention is vital regarding aflatoxin, as there is no practical way to remove it once it has contaminated food. Therefore, taking proactive steps to prevent contamination is critical for protecting human health.

How can farmers reduce the risk of aflatoxin?

Farmers can take several steps to reduce the risk of aflatoxin contamination in their crops:

  1. Crop management: Proper crop management practices can help reduce the risk of aflatoxin contamination. This includes planting resistant varieties, using proper irrigation techniques, and ensuring that crops are harvested at the correct time.
  2. Pest control: Pests such as insects and rodents can damage crops and create favourable conditions for the growth of aflatoxin-producing moulds. Farmers can minimise pest damage through integrated pest management practices, which may include cultural, biological, and chemical controls.
  3. Drying and storage: Aflatoxin-producing moulds thrive in warm, humid environments. Therefore, farmers should ensure that crops are dried and stored in excellent conditions. This can be achieved using drying and storage facilities that maintain appropriate temperature and humidity levels.
  4. Regular monitoring: Farmers should regularly monitor their crops for signs of mould growth and other indicators of aflatoxin contamination. This can involve visual inspections and laboratory testing samples from different farm areas.
  5. Training and education: Farmers can benefit from training and educational programs that teach them about the risks of aflatoxin contamination and the best prevention practices. This can include information on crop management, pest control, and proper drying and storage techniques.

Farmers can help reduce the risk of aflatoxin contamination in their crops by taking these steps, leading to safer and healthier food for consumers.

Treatment for aflatoxin infection

The treatment for aflatoxin exposure depends on the severity of the illness and the specific symptoms exhibited. Hospitalisation may be necessary in cases of acute poisoning to manage symptoms such as vomiting, dehydration, and convulsions. Supportive care may also be required, including intravenous fluids, electrolyte replacement, and nutritional support.

However, there is no specific antidote for aflatoxin poisoning, and treatment mainly focuses on managing symptoms and preventing further exposure. In cases of chronic exposure, long-term monitoring and management of liver function may be necessary to reduce the risk of developing liver cancer. Prevention is the most effective way to reduce the risk of aflatoxin exposure, which includes measures such as proper storage and handling of food and feed products, regular testing for contamination, and strict regulatory controls.

Conclusion

It is essential to prevent or reduce aflatoxin contamination by implementing good agricultural practices, proper storage conditions, and regular monitoring of crops for aflatoxin levels. The Government has already started screening or examining food and non-food items imported into the country at the border.

To ensure accuracy and transparency, we at 211 Check welcome corrections from our readers. If you spot an error in this article, please request a correction using this form. Our team will review your request and make the necessary corrections immediately, if any.

Fact-check: “Are you from South Sudan?” Job Scams

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These sites are malicious, masquerading as genuine ones, but they steal people’s information. 

Writer: Jibi Moses

If you are a regular Facebook and Messenger user, you must have encountered multiple sponsored Facebook job advertisements on various pages. The pages which run a series of these ads claim there are jobs in the US or Canada for people from South Sudan.

These pages, among others, are; Exact Grant (here, here and here), Jobs Global Center (here) and Study for You (Here).  

The adverts run with different headings, such as “Hiring Caregivers in the USA | jobs as a night carer for the elderly” and “Looking for jobs that are right for you.”

These posts claim that the jobs include housekeeping, elderly caregiving, driving, supermarket attendants, construction and painting. The pages make further claims about how people will be paid per hour, ranging from 25 USD to 50 USD, depending on what one intends to apply for, and every opportunity doesn’t require experience. 

Screenshots of one of the adverts from Exact Grant.

Investigation:

These adverts are everywhere on Facebook and are concentrated on South Sudanese. And many people were commenting, showing interest in applying for these jobs, which raised concern, and 211Check ran an investigation. However, on opening the site, they immediately lead one to  Home-care-jobs-usa-xyz.

This also has several other sponsored adverts, including, among others, Americanmobile.com, TravelNursing.com, and Travel Nursing Jobs. These are legitimate Nurse staffing agencies with enough experience in doing their work according to the detailed information on their websites and the whois details, all located and registered in the United States of America. Here are their whois details respectively. (Here, here, here). These three companies were registered long ago, the earliest in 1997 and the latest in 2001.

However, on scanning the link Home-care-jobs-usa-xyz using Virustotal, 211 Check found that it has a suspicious, as detected by Forcepoint Threatseeker.

As it operates, Forcepoint ThreatSeeker Intelligence: Monitors popular websites to see if they’ve been compromised or hijacked. Follows breaking news, trending topics and viral social media to identify additional content to assess.

A browser hijacker is a malware program that modifies web browser settings without the user’s permission and redirects the user to websites the user had not intended to visit. It is often called a browser redirect virus because it redirects the browser to other, usually malicious, websites.

Cybercriminals create malicious websites to steal data and plant malware such as ransomware. These websites often masquerade as legitimate ones and use phishing emails to lure visitors

Screenshot of the virus total results.

Conclusion 

The adverts running through different platforms claiming to offer jobs to South Sudanese are mainly false; these ads contain malware intentionally created to divert users to websites they don’t intend to use. These sites are malicious, masquerading as genuine ones, but they steal people’s information. 

To ensure accuracy and transparency, we at 211 Check welcome corrections from our readers. If you spot an error in this article, please request a correction using this form. Our team will review your request and make the necessary corrections immediately, if any.

It is crucial to fight against misinformation and disinformation in mainstream and alternative media by avoiding becoming a victim of fake news. To prevent the spread of false information, you must refrain from sharing content you are unsure about or unaware of its origin. Disinformation and misinformation can be incredibly dangerous because they can mislead people and cause harm. For instance, false information on health matters can lead to wrong decisions that can put people’s lives at risk. Therefore, it’s vital to fact-check information before sharing it to promote accurate and reliable information. Visit https://211check.org/ for more information on our fact-checking process, or send us a WhatsApp message at +211 917 298 255 if you want to present a claim. Our team will promptly respond to your request because we believe #FactsMatter.

Blog: The psychology behind why people create online scams and fraud

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We explore the psychology behind online scams and frauds, including common tactics used by scammers, the impact of such activities on individuals and society, legal consequences for those participating in these activities, and ways to verify the authenticity and protect oneself from online fraud.

Writer: Emmanuel Bida Thomas

Unfortunately, online scams and frauds are all too common in today’s digital age. Despite efforts to increase awareness and educate people about these types of fraud, they continue to occur at an alarming rate. The psychology behind why people create online scams and frauds is complex and multifaceted. In this blog post, we’ll explore some of the common tactics used by scammers, the impact of online scams and frauds on individuals and society as a whole, the legal consequences of participating in online scams and frauds, how to verify the authenticity of scams such as job offers or recruitment messages, and how to protect oneself from online job scams and frauds.

The global prevalence of online scams and fraud

According to PwC’s Global Economic Crime and Fraud Survey 2022, 51% of surveyed organisations say they experienced fraud in the past two years, the highest level in their 20 years of research. The survey of 1,296 executives across 53 countries and regions also shows that fraudsters are becoming more sophisticated in their tactics. In a survey of over 5,000 respondents across 99 global territories in 2020, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) found that 47 per cent had suffered at least one form of fraud in the prior 24 months—averaging six per company. These were commonly customer fraud, cybercrime, asset misappropriation, bribery, and corruption, costing $42 billion.

The Psychology Behind Online Scams and Frauds

The desire for financial gain is the root of most online scams and frauds. Scammers often use social engineering techniques to manipulate victims into giving up personal information, money, or sensitive data. These techniques exploit human vulnerabilities, including fear, curiosity, greed, and compassion. For example, some scammers may pose as a trustworthy authority figures, such as a doctor or government official, to convince their victims to hand over sensitive information.

Others may use emotional appeals, promising quick riches or presenting themselves as long-lost friends or loved ones needing urgent help. Still, others may use threats or blackmail to extort money or information from their victims. Ultimately, the success of any scam relies on the victim’s willingness to trust the scammer and act upon their demands.

Socio-economic factors contributing to online scams and positive impacts

Some people may use online scams to survive in countries with limited economic opportunities. While this does not justify fraudulent behaviour, it is essential to acknowledge that underlying socioeconomic factors may contribute to the prevalence of online scams.

It’s important to understand that people engage in fraudulent behaviour for various reasons. These reasons are often related to broader societal issues such as poverty, inequality, and lack of access to education and economic opportunities. While it’s never acceptable to engage in fraud or other illegal activities, addressing the root causes of these behaviours is essential to create a more just and equitable society. One way to do this is by investing in programs and policies that promote economic growth and opportunity, improve access to education and training, and support marginalised communities. A holistic approach to addressing these issues can reduce the prevalence of online scams and other forms of fraud while promoting more significant social and economic justice.

It is difficult to find any positive impacts of online scams. However, some studies suggest that online shaming can have positive influences, such as the communication of group norms and the punishment of their violation by elevating the status of those enforcing them. 

The four stages of a scam are:

The typical stages of a scam are from when the scammer first contacts a potential victim to the victim realising they’ve been defrauded.

The opportunity is also called setup: Scammers contact potential victims. They often have tremendous success if the victim is experiencing a vulnerable period in their life. The scammer sets up the scam, which involves creating a fake story or scenario to trick the victim into parting with their money or personal information. 

The hook or scam itself: The scammer makes initial contact with the victim and uses various tactics to gain their trust and confidence, such as offering a fake investment opportunity or pretending to be a government agency. Fraudsters create a credible fake story to target victims, such as a bank staff member, an investment expert, a seller of goods or a romantic interest. Scammers use imitation to appear more believable. Tactics include spoofing phone numbers or using fake reviews to create credible online ads. Scammers build a relationship with the victim by appearing likeable and establishing similarities.

The payoff, known as payment: The scammer convinces the victim to send them money or provide personal information, often by promising a significant return on investment or threatening legal action if they don’t comply. Scammers create an overwhelming sense of urgency, leaving victims little time to double-check details and manipulating them into dismissing warnings from experts, family members or friends.

The endgame and aftermath: The scammer disappears with the victim’s money or personal information, leaving them with little recourse for recovery. In some cases, the scammer may continue to contact the victim to get more money or information from them. The victim realises that they’ve been scammed, often causing feelings of distress and shame. Too often, banks and the police don’t deal with the situation well, leaving the victim under further stress. On many occasions, the victim isn’t reimbursed for their losses.

Common Tactics Used by Scammers

Scammers use various tactics to trick people into giving them money or personal information. Some of the most common tactics used by scammers include impersonation, urgency, and emotional manipulation:

  • Phishing emails and text messages: Appear to be from a reputable source but contain links or attachments that install malware or steal personal information.
  • Advance fee scams: These are scams where the scammer poses as a wealthy individual who needs help transferring funds out of their country. The victim is promised a reward for helping but is asked to pay various fees upfront, which are never returned.
  • Charity scams: These are scams where the scammer poses as a charitable organisation and solicits donations from unsuspecting individuals. The money collected is often never used for its intended purpose.
  • Impersonation scams: These are scams where the scammer poses as a legitimate authority figure, such as a government official, police officer, or bank representative. They use this guise to obtain personal or sensitive information from their victims.

Impact of Online Scams and Frauds

The impact of online scams and frauds can devastate individuals and society. Victims can suffer financial losses, identity theft, and emotional distress. Online scams and frauds can undermine trust in institutions and the economy. Victims may also face legal consequences if they unknowingly participate in illegal activities, such as money laundering or wire fraud.

Online scams and frauds impact society, eroding trust and confidence in digital transactions and communication. This can lead to decreased adoption of new technologies and increased costs for businesses that must invest in cybersecurity measures to protect themselves and their customers. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), incidents that corrupt the integrity of financial data can potentially undermine trust and confidence more broadly. In addition, exposure to online misinformation has been linked to lower trust in mainstream media across party lines.

Legal Consequences of Participating in Online Scams and Frauds

Participating in online scams and frauds can have serious legal consequences. Depending on the nature and scope of the scam, individuals who are caught may face fines, imprisonment, or both. In some cases, individuals may also be required to pay restitution to their victims.

How to Verify the Authenticity of Scams

It’s important to verify the authenticity of any message or job offer before providing personal or sensitive information. Some ways to do this include:

-Researching the company or organisation online to see if they have a legitimate website or social media presence.

  • Contact the company or organisation directly to confirm the message’s legitimacy or offer.
  • Checking with relevant authorities, such as the Better Business Bureau or local law enforcement, to see if any reports of fraud or scams are associated with the company or organisation.

How to Protect Oneself from Online Scams and Frauds

There are several things that individuals can do to protect themselves from online scams and frauds:

  • Be cautious about providing personal or sensitive information online.
  • Avoid clicking on links or downloading attachments from unknown sources.
  • Use strong passwords and two-factor authentication for online accounts.
  • Install antivirus software and keep it updated.
  • Report any suspicious activity to relevant authorities.

A fairer system for scam victims

South Sudan has been plagued by scams and frauds, leaving many victims without justice or compensation. To establish a fairer system, the establishment of Computer Incident Response Term (CIRT), a centralised government agency by the National Community Authority, should be expedited to handle scams and fraud reports. CIRT should employ trained investigators who work with victims to gather evidence and pursue legal action against scammers. Scam victims should be provided with counselling services, information on avoiding scams and establishing a compensation fund in the future. The legal system must be strengthened to ensure that scammers are held accountable, and victims receive justice. Education and awareness campaigns could be implemented to help prevent future scams by educating the public on how to spot and avoid them.

Computer Incident Response Teams (CIRTs) can effectively combat online scams by providing a coordinated and rapid response to security incidents. CIRTs can help to identify and contain security incidents, minimise damage, and restore normal operations as quickly as possible. They can also help to prevent future incidents by identifying vulnerabilities and implementing security measures to address them. 

While implementing such a system may require significant resources and effort, it could provide much-needed support and justice to victims of scams in South Sudan.

New laws could provide more excellent protection

Two significant pieces of legislation that are yet to go through parliament will help to provide improved protections against scams or help for scam victims in South Sudan:

The Data Protection Bill aims to regulate the collection, use, storage, and sharing of personal data by individuals, organisations, and institutions. It will hold online platforms responsible for fraudulent content and ads, which means that they will be required to take steps to prevent the spread of malicious advertisements and fake news on their platforms. This could help reduce the number of online scams and provide more excellent protection to consumers who may fall victim to these scams.

The Cybercrime and Computer Misuse Bill addresses cybercrime activities such as hacking, identity theft, and phishing. The bill criminalises computer-related offences and provides penalties for those found guilty of engaging in such activities. This bill can help deter cybercriminals from carrying out illegal activities by imposing stiff penalties and providing a legal framework within which law enforcement agencies can investigate and prosecute cybercriminals.

Conclusion

Unfortunately, online scams and frauds are a reality in today’s digital age. The psychology behind why people create these types of fraud is complex but often involves a desire for financial gain. To protect oneself from these types of scams, it’s essential to be cautious about providing personal information online and to verify the authenticity of any message or job offer before acting upon it. By staying vigilant and informed, individuals can avoid falling victim to online scams and fraud.

To ensure accuracy and transparency, we at 211 Check welcome corrections from our readers. If you spot an error in this article, please request a correction using this form. Our team will review your request and make the necessary corrections immediately, if any.

Explainer: Propaganda, misinformation or disinformation; what are they?

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Analysts generally agree that disinformation is always purposeful and not necessarily composed of lies or fabrications. It can be composed of primarily true facts, stripped of context or blended with falsehoods to support the intended message, and is always part of a larger plan or agenda.

Writer: Jibi Moses

Propaganda is disseminating information—facts, arguments, rumours, half-truths, or lies—to influence public opinion.

Propaganda is the more or less systematic effort to manipulate other people’s beliefs, attitudes, or actions using symbols (words, gestures, banners, monuments, music, clothing, insignia, hairstyles, designs on coins and postage stamps, and so forth). Deliberateness and a heavy emphasis on manipulation distinguish propaganda from casual conversation or the free and easy exchange of ideas. Propagandists have a specific goal or set of goals. To achieve these, they deliberately select facts, arguments, and displays of symbols and present them in ways they think will have the most effect. To maximise effect, they may omit or distort pertinent facts or lie, and they may try to divert the attention of the reactors (the people they are trying to sway) from everything but their own propaganda.

Comparatively deliberate selectivity and manipulation also distinguish propaganda from Education. Educators try to present various sides of an issue—the grounds for doubting, the grounds for believing their statements, and the disadvantages and advantages of every conceivable course of action. Education aims to induce reactors to collect and evaluate evidence for themselves and assists them in learning the techniques for doing so. It must be noted, however, that some propagandists may look upon themselves as educators and may believe that they are uttering the purest truth, that they are emphasising or distorting certain aspects of the truth only to make a valid message more persuasive, or that the courses of action that they recommend are the best actions that the reactor could take. By the same token, the reactor who regards the propagandist’s message as self-evident truth may think of it as educational; this often seems to be the case with “true believers”—dogmatic reactors to dogmatic religious, social, or political propaganda. “Education” for one person may be “propaganda” for another.

Propaganda and related concepts

Connotations of the term propaganda

The word propaganda itself, as used in recent centuries, apparently derives from the title and work of the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for Propagation of the Faith), an organisation of Roman Catholic cardinals founded in 1622 to carry on missionary work. To many Roman Catholics, the word may have a highly respectable connotation, at least in missionary or ecclesiastical terms. But even to these persons, and indeed, to many others, the term is often a pejorative one tending to connote such things as the discredited atrocity stories and deceptively stated war aims of World Wars I and II, the operations of the Nazis’ Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, and the broken campaign promises of a thousand politicians. Also, it is reminiscent of countless instances of false and misleading advertising (especially in countries using Latin languages, in which propaganda commercials or some equivalent is a common term for commercial advertising).

Alfred M. Lee and Elizabeth B. Lee classified the Propaganda devices into seven major categories: name-calling, Glittering generalities, transfer, testimonial, Plain-folk, Card-stacking and Bandwagon.

Misinformation is false or inaccurate information. Examples include rumours, insults and pranks. Disinformation is deliberate and includes malicious content such as hoaxes, spear phishing and propaganda. It spreads fear and suspicion among the population. The following are the categories of misinformation and disinformation: Fabricated Content: Completely false content; Manipulated Content: Genuine information or imagery that has been distorted like a sensational headline or populist ‘clickbait’; Imposter Content: Impersonation of genuine sources, e.g. using the branding of an established agency; Misleading Content: Misleading information, like a comment presented as fact; False Context: Factually accurate content combined with false contextual information, e.g. when the headline of an article does not reflect the content; Satire and Parody: Humorous but false stores passed off as true. There is no intention to harm, but readers may be fooled; False Connections: When headlines, visuals or captions do not support the content; Sponsored Content: Advertising or PR disguised as editorial content; Propaganda: Content used to manage attitudes, values and knowledge; and Error: A mistake made by established new agencies in their reporting. 

The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has also given birth to new forms of misinformation and disinformation. We call this Synthetic Media to indicate the artificial production, manipulation and modification of data and multimedia by automated means, especially AI algorithms, to mislead or change the original meaning. There are fears that synthetic media could supercharge fake news, spread misinformation and distrust of reality and automate creative jobs. ‘Deep Fakes’ are one type of synthetic media where a person in an existing image or video is replaced with someone else’s likeness. While faking content is not new, deep fakes use powerful techniques from machine learning and AI to manipulate or generate visual and audio content with a high potential to deceive. Deep Fakes have garnered widespread attention for their use in revenge porn, fake news, hoaxes and financial fraud. Industry and governments are concerned to detect and limit their use. Some countries already have a national response, or institutions are working on it. “Speech Synthesis” is another branch of synthetic media that can artificially produce human speech. A computer used for this purpose is called a “speech computer” or “speech synthesiser”. Synthesised speech concatenates pieces of recorded speech or incorporates a model of the vocal tract and other human voice characteristics to create a completely “synthetic” voice.

In addition to new and more sophisticated ways of manipulating content, there are also a growing number of ways in which Social Media can be used to manipulate conversations: A Sockpuppet is an online identity used to deceive. The term now extends to misleading uses of online identities to praise, defend or support a person or organisation; to manipulate public opinion; or to circumvent restrictions, suspension or an outright ban from a website. The difference between a pseudonym and a sockpuppet is that the sockpuppet poses as an independent third party, unaffiliated with the main account holder. Sock Puppets are unwelcome in many online communities and forums; Sealioning is a type of trolling or harassment where people are pursued with persistent requests for evidence or repeated questions. A pretence of civility and sincerity is maintained with these incessant, bad-faith invitations to debate; Astroturfing masks the sponsors of a message (e.g. political, religious, advertising or PR organisations) to make it appear as though it comes from grassroots participants. The practice aims to give organisations credibility by withholding information about their motives or financial connections; Catfishing is a form of fraud where a person creates a sockpuppet or fake identity to target a particular victim on Social Media. It is common for romance scams on dating websites. It may be done for financial gain, to compromise a victim or as a form of trolling or wish fulfilment.

Disinformation is a relatively new word. Most observers trace it back to the Russian word dezinformatsiya, which Soviet planners in the 1950s defined as “dissemination (in the press, on the radio, etc.) of false reports intended to mislead public opinion.” Others suggest that the earliest use of the term originated in 1930s Nazi Germany. In either case, it is much younger (and less commonly used) than ‘propaganda,’ which originated in the 1600s and generally connoted the selective use of information for political effect.

Whether and to what degree these terms overlap is subject to debate. Some define propaganda as using non-rational arguments to either advance or undermine a political ideal and use disinformation as an alternative name for undermining propaganda. Others consider them to be separate concepts altogether. One popular distinction holds that disinformation also describes politically motivated messaging designed explicitly to engender public cynicism, uncertainty, apathy, distrust, and paranoia, which disincentivise citizen engagement and mobilisation for social or political change. “Misinformation” generally refers to the inadvertent sharing of false information.

Analysts generally agree that disinformation is always purposeful and not necessarily composed of lies or fabrications. It can be composed of primarily true facts, stripped of context or blended with falsehoods to support the intended message, and is always part of a larger plan or agenda. In the Russian context, observers have described its use to pursue Moscow’s foreign policy goals through a “4D” offensive: dismiss an opponent’s claims or allegations, distort events to serve political purposes, distract from one’s own activities, and dismay those who might otherwise oppose one’s goals.

To ensure accuracy and transparency, we at 211 Check welcome corrections from our readers. If you spot an error in this article, please request a correction using this form. Our team will review your request and make the necessary corrections immediately, if any.

Explainer: Distributed Denial of Service Attack (DDoS Attack)

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This article discusses Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks, how they can be prevented and mitigated, and their potential impact on businesses.

Writer: Jibi Moses

Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are now everyday occurrences. Whether a small non-profit or a huge multinational conglomerate, the organisation’s online services—email, websites, anything that faces the internet—can be slowed or completely stopped by a DDoS attack. For data centres, colocation, hosting and other service providers, DDoS attacks threaten the infrastructure that provides network and service availability to all its tenants, subscribers and customers and can target the most valuable customers.

A successful DDoS attack can seriously damage a brand’s reputation and cost hundreds or even millions of dollars in revenue. Moreover, DDoS attacks are sometimes used to distract cybersecurity operations while other criminal activity, such as data theft or network infiltration, is underway.

A Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack shuts down a machine or network, making it inaccessible to its intended users. DoS attacks accomplish this by flooding the target with traffic or sending it information that triggers a crash. Some definitions of the DoS can be found here, here, here and here.

Network traffic is the data moving across a computer network at any given time. Network traffic, also called data traffic, is broken down into data packets and sent over a network before being reassembled by the receiving device or computer.  In the case of an attack, keep sight of the other hosts, assets, or services residing on your network.

Meanwhile, a Distributed denial-of-Service (DDoS) attack is a DoS attack that uses multiple computers or machines to flood a targeted resource. Both attacks overload a server or web application, intending to interrupt services. 

Many attackers conduct DoS or DDoS attacks to deflect attention away from their intended target and use the opportunity to conduct secondary attacks on other services within your network. 

These attacks come in many forms: Volume-based attacks, Protocol attacks, Application-layer attacks, UDP attacks, ICMP attacks, Ping of death, Slowloris, and NTP application attacks. 

All the above affect the victim(s) differently but with a similar intention of disrupting the user. However, this doesn’t give the attacker access to the website he/ she has attacked.

A recent example of a DDoS attack in South Sudan was the attack on the Bank of South Sudan site. The local media was awash with the news, as reported by Eye Radio, CityReview, and Sudan Post, A mysterious group calling itself Anonymous South Sudan, claimed responsibility of the attack, citing high inflation rates as the main reason for hacking the bank’s website. Calling for a drop in the wanted South Sudanese Pounds exchange rate to  400 SSPP per 1 USD.

Besides in the other parts of the world, there are some popular and recent DDoS attacks; the Github hub attack in Feb 2018, the Mirai botnet attack in 2016, The AWS DDoS Attack in 2020 and the European Gambling Company in 2021.

Meanwhile, Denial of Service should be distinct from Hacking. According to Malwarebytes: Hacking refers to activities that seek to compromise digital devices, such as computers, smartphones, tablets, and even entire networks. And while hacking might not always be for malicious purposes, nowadays, most references to hacking, and hackers, characterise it/them as unlawful activity by cybercriminals—motivated by financial gain, protest, information gathering (spying), and even just for the “fun” of the challenge. Another point is that hackers have total control of the site or whatever they have broken into, unlike DDoS, whereby the system is flooded with traffic to interrupt the system. However, DDoS is one of the many tools for hacking. 

Prevention:

DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attacks can be challenging to prevent completely, but there are several measures that you can take to minimise their impact. Here are some steps to stop a DDoS attack on your website:

  1. Use a DDoS protection service: Consider using a third-party DDoS protection service to detect and mitigate attacks in real-time.
  1. Increase your server capacity: DDoS attacks can cause your website to become unavailable due to overwhelming traffic. Increasing your server capacity can help your website handle the traffic and remain available during an attack.
  1. Use a CDN (Content Delivery Network): A CDN can help distribute the traffic to multiple servers and reduce the load on your website, making it more resilient to DDoS attacks.
  1. Configure your firewall: Configure your firewall to block traffic from known malicious IP addresses, limit connections from a single IP address, and filter traffic based on specific patterns common in DDoS attacks.
  1. Keep your software up to date: Regularly update your website software, including the operating system, web server, and any third-party applications, to ensure that they are free from known vulnerabilities that could be exploited in a DDoS attack.
  1. Monitor your traffic: Analyze your traffic logs to identify any unusual traffic patterns that could indicate a DDoS attack. Using a monitoring tool can help you detect attacks early and take steps to mitigate them.
  1. Have a DDoS response plan: Develop a DDoS response plan that outlines the steps you will take in the event of an attack. This should include procedures for notifying your hosting provider, engaging a DDoS protection service, and communicating with your users.

What next if attacked?

Resolving a DDoS attack can be challenging, but there are several steps you can take to mitigate its effects: Identify the source of the attack: Determine where the attack is coming from and which systems or machines are being used to launch it. Block traffic from the attacking IPs: Once you know where the attack is coming from, block all traffic from those IP addresses to your network or website. Filter traffic: Apply filters to incoming traffic to identify and block malicious traffic and allow legitimate traffic. Increase server capacity: Add more servers or bandwidth to handle the increased traffic load. Use a Content Delivery Network (CDN): A CDN distributes network traffic across multiple servers, reducing the attack’s impact on any one server. Contact your Internet Service Provider (ISP): Your ISP may have tools or resources to help you mitigate the effects of a DDoS attack. Implement DDoS protection software: Several commercial and open-source options are available to help prevent DDoS attacks.

Remember that preventing DDoS attacks before they occur is the best strategy. It’s important to stay vigilant and keep your security measures up-to-date to reduce the risk of a successful attack.

To ensure accuracy and transparency, we at 211 Check welcome corrections from our readers. If you spot an error in this article, please request a correction using this form. Our team will review your request and make the necessary corrections immediately, if any.

Explainer: What does digital violence mean to women in South Sudan?

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Digital violence, defined as an act of violence rooted in gender inequality and committed using information and communication technologies or digital media, is a widespread issue facing women globally, with types including cyberbullying, sexting, stalking, grooming, shaming, and doxing; in South Sudan, a lack of specific laws addressing these crimes puts women at even greater risk online.

Writer: Beatrice Amude Paulino

Violence against women is one of the world’s most widespread human rights violations. It results in physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, and its means and tools vary with the passage of time and the growing information and technological revolution.

According to the United Nations Population Fund, online violence or digital violence is defined as an act of violence perpetrated by one or more individuals that are rooted in gender inequality and gendered norms, and that is committed, assisted, aggravated and amplified in part or fully by the use of information and communication technologies or digital media, against a person based on their gender .”

Digital violence is the behaviour that aims at harming or a situation where other users want to impose circumstances that the user is unwilling to or does not consent to in mobile or internet applications. Digital violence can also refer to disruptive online actions, such as cyber-bullying or cyber warfare.

Types of Digital Violence:

Cyberbullying: is psychological harassment, mainly through the media.

Sexting: can be in the form of photos and videos of a sexual form that can be posted online or sent to someone through a phone.

Stalking: is referred to as harassment on any technological platform.

Grooming: is the type of harassment exercised by an adult person towards a child, such as when an adult sexually abuses a child.

Shaming is any action designed to shame the victim, mostly towards women.

Doxing: consists of the action of publishing private information without the person’s consent.

The Characteristics of Digital Violence:

Digital abuse can occur in people of all ages, although it is especially common among teenagers and young people who use smartphones more often. Signs of digital abuse may include but are not limited to intimidation and harassment, surveillance and stalking, sexual coercion, possession and control. 

Levels of Digital Violence against Women in South Sudan:

According to a United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) study, “ 85% of women globally have been exposed to or experienced some form of online violence, and nearly 40% have experienced it personally.”

Research in 2020 by Plan International, the #freeToBeOnline campaign to protect girls and women online, stated that 14 thousand of girls from 22 countries, including South Sudan, were physically and racially threatened and abused online. The report stated that cyberbullying may contribute to the suicide surge among youth today. But for South Sudan, the young generation engaged both online and offline “might be dying in silence without speaking out.’’

An article by Defyhatenow in February 2021 discusses the issue of physical and cyberbullying in South Sudan, highlighting the lack of specific laws addressing these crimes. The authors cite various sources to support their claims, including research studies and interviews with experts and victims.

Conclusion:

Policymakers should consider taking action to protect women’s rights in digital spaces after acknowledging the potential risks women may face due to digital technology.

The government in South Sudan should ensure the operation of effective women’s protection mechanisms online and safeguarding policies while respecting women’s rights in all settings where women access the digital environment, including the home, offices, education settings, cybercafes, youth centres, libraries, and health care facilities.

To ensure accuracy and transparency, we at 211 Check welcome corrections from our readers. If you spot an error in this article, please request a correction using this form. Our team will review your request and make the necessary corrections immediately, if any.

Data Story: South Sudan’s population surges to 12.4 million, reveals 2021 survey

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The survey is expected to be an essential resource for the government’s development planning, decision-making, and provision of services as it provides the latest accurate population estimates and other demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the inhabitants.

Writer: Jibi Moses 

The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in South Sudan released the Population Estimation Survey 2021 (PES) on April 6th, 2023, revealing a surge in the country’s population to 12.4 million people, a rise of over four million people. The PES 2021 was conducted between May 28th and June 15th, 2021, across ten states and three Administrative areas, with a female population of 52.9% and a male population of 47.1%, while the youth population stands at 77%.

The PES 2021 is expected to be an essential resource for the government’s development planning, decision-making, and provision of services. The survey will monitor the performance of the National Development strategy and the sustainable development goals while providing policymakers with briefs and reference points for research.

With South Sudan’s last census conducted in 2008, the PES 2021 provides the latest accurate population estimates and other demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the inhabitants. The NBS utilised satellite imagery and enumeration to ensure the quality of information and data for the survey met the basic assumptions of the analytic method.

Despite the impact of civil war outbreaks since independence in 2011, the PES 2021 provides a comprehensive and up-to-date representation of South Sudan’s population, enabling policymakers and decision-makers to implement evidence-based planning and decision-making for progress and sustainable development in the country.

The country’s last Census was in 2008, when it was still an autonomous region of Sudan. While releasing the results, Isaiah Chol Aruai, the chairperson of NBS, explained that the figures are based on satellite imagery and enumeration across ten states and three Administrative areas.

“The quality of information and data for a given locale, as well as the ability of the data to meet the basic assumptions of the analytic method, are key to performing accurate estimates or projections,” Isaiah Chol Aruai said.

S/No.State/Administrative areaModelled Population Estimates 
1Upper Nile 790,147
2Jonglie 791,105
3Unity 892,780
4Western Bahr El Ghazal 562,555
5Northern Bahr el Ghazal 1,924,342
6Warrap 2,639, 484
7Lakes 1,265, 473
8Western Equatoria 663,233
9Central Equatoria 1,324,521
10Eastern Equatoria 981,902
11Greater Pibor A A240,102
13Ruweng AA234,416
14Abyei133,955
Total12,444,018
Fig 1.0: A table showing the data of the PES 2021 | Source: National Bureau of Statistics 

National statistical offices often produce estimates and projections of various characteristics of a population. These statistics are a vital source of information for decision-makers throughout the government, the private sector, and civil society. An estimate calculates a population’s size or distribution or another population characteristic for the present or past. At the same time, a projection describes these characteristics in the future.

In most countries, policymakers and other data users often require accurate information between census data releases every ten years. Although a full population count only occurs during a census, statistical methods and tools often produce regular, up-to-date population estimates.

Population estimates can describe the population size and demographic characteristics such as age, sex, or education level. Population estimates depend on change’s demographic components: mortality, fertility, and migration.

Estimates of mortality, fertility, and migration estimates are derived from data available from censuses, surveys, registration systems, and other administrative records. Estimates and projections are calculated similarly. However, estimates employ observed data and hypotheses of demographic change when data are incomplete. Projections, on the other hand, rely on hypotheses about demographic change in the future.

One of the most widely used approaches for producing population estimates and projections is the Cohort Component Method, which can be used to calculate detailed statistics such as population by age and sex, total fertility rate, infant mortality rate, and population growth rate. A population may also be estimated and projected for multiple geography units, from the national to various subnational levels (e.g.States, Counties, Districts, Payams, Bomas). 

Figure 2: A bar chart showing the total populations from the ten states and the administrative Areas | Source: Flourish Studio Data Visualization

Fig 3. A stacked bar chart showing the figures of the two most recent population census in 2008 and the PES 2021 | Source: Flourish studio data visualization. 

Fig 4: A bar chart showing the population percentage between the two censuses, 2008 and PES 2021 | Source: Flourish Studio Data Visualization

Criticisms from the Public:

The PES 2021 report was received with much scepticism and criticism from the public. Individuals and organisations criticised the authenticity of the data. Some voices challenging the report can be found in this article by The East African and an analysis by The Sudd Institute. 

“Some opposition politicians and some in the civil society questioned the estimates that put the total of the country’s population to 12,444,018 and are demanding what they term “a proper census” as per the 2018 peace agreement. UN estimates had put the population at 11,556,069 even though the UN itself partly supported the current survey,” reports The East African

Augustino T. Mayai, the Managing Director of the Sudd Institute, an independent research organisation, analysed the scientific, political, and policy implications of the PES results stating that the new estimates are in stark contrast with South Sudan’s 2008 census counts, which stood at 8.26 million, informing the 2010 regional and national elections. These estimates, he says, “…have so far generated heated debates in various quarters, with many outright contesting them for a host of good reasons.”

However, on the 13th of April, NBS clarified that the PES 2021 results should not be used for electoral purposes, Juba Echo, but for planning and policy guidance, such as Something Augustino T. Magai questions.  

‘’…if the PES results cannot be used for electoral purposes, then it is odd to use them

for development. Using the scientifically troubled PES results for development (i.e., 

distributing services) is more problematic than using them for politics. This is because 

development is for the ‘greater good for a greater number of people,’ as should be obvious, 

South Sudan’s politics benefits a select few. Let me illustrate. Suppose the Northern Bahr el Ghazal government constructs 50 new schools in Aweil East based on the current estimates, subsequently recruiting teachers and enrolling students. It then dawns on the government that only ten such schools must be based on actual enrollments. The result then boils down to resources wasted and injustice inflicted on populations that genuinely deserve the services but could not get..,’’ as quoted in his report. 

Conclusion:

Much as the PES 2021 results announced, NBS decried a lot of challenges in bringing out accurate and perfect results; among these, they cited the insecurity in parts of the country, floods that had submerged a lot of the inhabited land areas, lack of resources both financial and human. However, against all odds, they could still get the necessary data.

The PES 2021 results put the current estimated population at 12,446,016, with an increment of 4,186,335 from the 2008 population census, which had the country at 8,260,490. This shows an annual percentage growth of 3.9%. 

The current population of South Sudan is 11,556,786 as of Tuesday, April 25th 2023, based on the latest United Nations data. With 43% of the population below 14, 54%  between 15 – 64 and 3% representing 65 and above.

Population estimates are a vital source of information for decision-makers throughout the government, private sector, and civil society. In most countries, policymakers and other data users often require accurate information between census data releases every ten years. Although a full population count only occurs during a census, statistical methods and tools often produce regular, up-to-date population estimates.

Demographic components such as mortality, fertility, and migration must be considered to ensure the accuracy of population estimates. Estimates of these components are derived from data available from censuses, surveys, registration systems, and other administrative records. The Cohort Component Method is widely used for producing population estimates and projections.

Given the importance of accurate population estimates, it is recommended that South Sudan conducts regular surveys and censuses to ensure policymakers have the necessary information for decision-making. Innovative methods such as satellite imagery and enumeration can enhance the quality of information and data collected during surveys and censuses. Policymakers should prioritise evidence-based planning and decision-making for progress and sustainable development in South Sudan.

This article is part of our data stories work written with the firm belief that factual and data-driven reporting can influence decision-making and public perceptions and educate the audience on public interest issues.

To ensure accuracy and transparency, we at 211 Check welcome corrections from our readers. If you spot an error in this article, please request a correction using this form. Our team will review your request and make the necessary corrections immediately, if any.

Fact-check: Is UNICEF currently offering employment opportunities?

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No, UNICEF has not advertised any jobs as claimed in this advert link; it is just a social media scam that people should avoid.

Writer: Jibi Moses 

A job advert claiming to be from UNICEF recently went viral on social media, mainly WhatsApp groups, but it is false.

The advert’s welcoming note on the site’s homepage reads, “Welcome to UNICEF Application Form Portal. Click on the below to start your registration. All nationalities are eligible to apply.”

A screenshot of the false advert on WhatsApp

Investigation:

211 Check analysed the site’s address using VirusTotal, a tool used to analyse suspicious files, domains, IPs and URLs to detect malware and other breaches and automatically share them with the security community. The results show that it is phishing malware. 

A screenshot of the Virustotal analysis results. 

Secondly, UNICEF South Sudan published a disclaimer on its Facebook page, alerting the public that they have not advertised for jobs. Therefore, the public should ignore the message in circulation and consistently get open jobs from their website.

“This message going around via WhatsApp and other online platforms suggests applications to UNICEF. This is a fake job advert or calls for application. All UNICEF vacancies are announced on this official website 👉🏾 http://jobs.unicef.org. Only use this website address to view our latest vacancies and to apply for them,” UNICEF South Sudan said in a Facebook post.

“𝗨𝗡𝗜𝗖𝗘𝗙 𝗗𝗢𝗘𝗦 𝗡𝗢𝗧 receive applications (including cover letters and CVs) through WhatsApp or email. Do not open the link in the screenshot; 𝗜𝗧 𝗜𝗦 𝗙𝗔𝗞𝗘!” It added.

The UNICEFdisclaimer as it is on their Facebook page

Lastly, when the link is opened on a protected computer with an updated antivirus, it is automatically blocked.

Screenshot showing the site being blocked by NordVPN

Conclusion:

211 Check finds that claim that UNICEF is offering jobs through a site other than its original website is false. According to the above results, this job advert is a phishing scam and not genuine. Phishing is a form of social engineering where attackers deceive people into revealing sensitive information or installing malware. 

We should always be aware by updating our gadgets with powerful anti-viruses and avoiding opening suspicious links. The public should use basic cyber skills to identify such scams quickly. 

Fight misinformation in mainstream and alternative media by not being a victim of fake news. Refrain from sharing content you are unsure about or don’t know where it comes from to prevent spreading false information. For more information on our fact-checking process, visit https://211check.org/ or send us a WhatsApp message at +211 917 298 255 to present a claim. Our team will fact-check it and respond promptly. #FactsMatter

Fact-check: These shoes (Tex Hazel) weren’t found in South Sudan

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The shoes were invented and used by a cattle thief named Crazy Tex Hazel in 1920 for stealing cows and are currently kept in the Northeastern Nevada Museum in Nevada, USA.

Writer: Jibi Moses 

Suncity Tv, a local blog in South Sudan, posted on the 11th of March, 2023, a story with pictures of homemade wood and leather shoes with a design of two pairs of cow hooves on each, allegedly found in some village in South Sudan, but this claim is false. 

The page with over 7,000 followers describes itself as a Society and Culture website on a mission to change the negative narrative of South Sudan, promoting all the 64 tribes in South Sudan by showcasing their culture and lifestyles and sharing myriads of success stories to keep you inspired had captioned the shoes, “These shoes were found in some village in South Sudan (village name hidden). A cattle thief designed and used it to hide his footprint while on duty.’’

A screenshot of the post by Suncity TV.

Investigation:

On running a Google Reverse Image Search on the picture, several results were brought on the internet 211 check found that the same pictures were first used in 2021 by a Facebook page named Bentiu Tv and Agogo Ayo, a blog named 9GAG, further still the same pictures were posted on Reddit. 

Some sites that previously used this picture can be found here, here, and here. All these pages and blogs clearly explain that these shoes were used by a man called Crazy Tex Hazelwood. He was a notorious cattle thief in America in the year 1920.

In the 1920s, one small-time thief named Crazy Tex Hazelwood made a pair of ingenious boots so he would not get caught stealing cattle from his neighbours. This pair of “boots” look like slippers attached to two cow hooves on each slipper.

These shoes are currently in the Northeast Nevada Museum in Nevada, USA.

Conclusion:

211 Check finds that claim that the shoes in the picture were found in a South Sudanese village is false. The shoes are not found anywhere in South Sudan but were used in the US by a notorious cattle thief  Crazy Tex Hazel. The shoes are kept in the Northeastern Nevada Museum but not in South Sudan.

Fight misinformation in mainstream and alternative media by not being a victim of fake news. Refrain from sharing content you are unsure about or don’t know where it comes from to prevent spreading false information. For more information on our fact-checking process, visit https://211check.org/ or send us a WhatsApp message at +211 917 298 255 to present a claim. Our team will fact-check it and respond promptly. #FactsMatter

Common misconceptions about fact-checking and information verification

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Fact-checking is an important tool for verifying the accuracy of information in today’s world, and it is vital to be aware of the myths and truths about it.

Writer: Emmanuel Bida Thomas

In today’s world, verifying the accuracy of information is more critical than ever. With the rise of social media and the 24-hour news cycle, it is easy to be bombarded with information, much of which is false or misleading. Fact-checking is the process of verifying the accuracy of the information, and it is an essential tool for anyone who wants to be informed about the world around them.

There are many common myths about fact-checking. One myth is that fact-checking is biased. Fact-checkers are trained to be objective and impartial and use various methods to verify the accuracy of information. However, it is essential to remember that no one is perfect, and there is always the possibility of human error.

Another myth is that fact-checking is only about politics. Fact-checking can be used to verify information about any topic, not just politics. Fact-checkers often fact-check claims made by businesses, celebrities, and other non-political figures.

A third myth is that fact-checking is censorship. Fact-checking is not censorship. It is the process of verifying the accuracy of information. Censorship is the suppression of information that is considered to be objectionable or harmful. Fact-checking is not about suppressing information but ensuring that the information being shared is accurate.

A fourth myth is that fact-checkers are always right. Fact-checkers are human, and they make mistakes. It is important to remember that fact-checking is not a perfect science, and there is always the possibility that a fact-checker could cause an error. If you see a fact-check that you disagree with, you should do your research to verify the information.

A fifth myth is that fact-checking is not necessary. Some people believe fact-checking is unnecessary because they can simply trust their judgment. However, it is essential to remember that we are all susceptible to confirmation bias, which is the tendency to seek information confirming our beliefs. Fact-checking can help us to avoid confirmation bias and to make more informed decisions.

It is essential to be aware of these myths to make informed decisions about the information you consume. If you see a claim you are unsure about, you should do your research to verify the information. You can also use fact-checking websites to help you verify the accuracy of information.

Here are some tips for fact-checking information:

  • Look for credible sources. When trying to verify information, it is crucial to look for credible and reputable sources. You can check the source’s website to see if they have a clear mission statement and if they list their sources. You can also look for fact-checks of the source by other reputable organisations.
  • Be sceptical of sensational headlines. Sensational headlines are often designed to grab your attention but may be inaccurate. Reading the entire article before deciding whether to believe the information is essential.
  • Check the facts. Once you have found a trustworthy source, you can check the facts. Look for evidence to support the claims that are being made. If you can’t find any evidence, or if the evidence is contradictory, then you may want to question the accuracy of the information.
  • Don’t share information you’re not sure about. Before you share information on social media or with others, make sure you are sure that it is accurate. You can avoid spreading misinformation by taking the time to verify the information before you share it.

Fact-checking is an integral part of being an informed citizen. Awareness of the myths about fact-checking and using the tips above can ensure that you get accurate information as a content creator or news consumer.